Imprint of Italian and Irish Americans on the American Culture Essay

On July 4th 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Carefully written on this scribe and on the foundation of this nation are the unalienable rights to â€Å"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.† (Declaration of Independence, n.d.) While some of the values and ideas of this document come from America’s motherland, England, the promised rights to the free world are shared by no other nation. For this reason, The American Dream is dreamt not only by natural born citizens of this nation, but by many people all around the world. Over twelve million immigrants during the late 1800s and early 1900s passed through Ellis Island, the first federal immigrant inspection station of the free world. Of the newcomers, a portion of them consisted of Italian Americans and Irish Americans. Throughout history, these groups have contributed to what is termed multiculturalism. Being the minority, these two groups have also experienced power-conflicts through their quests of assimilation. The two ethnic groups faced many challenges that helped create what is believed to be the melting pot to many ethnicities and racial groups. For The Journey While the American Dream is a common value, the aspirations of the idea come from different motives. In Italy, a strong, and unfair class structure created such severe conditions that led to 1/3 of the nation’s population to immigrate to the new world. While the majority of this fraction came permanently for a new life, some came temporarily to make enough money to return to Italy and buy land. Simply owning land in Italy automatically escalated Italians within the class structure. Many Italian Americans settled in Chicago Illinois, one of the largest growing cities in America at the time. Chicago offered much opportunity for work, as it was the ideal producer of steel and aider to America’s industrial growth. Back in Ireland,  the Irish had much more to deal with than just a harsh class structure. Under English rule, Irish religious practices were repressed along with many other basic freedoms the Irish came to experience in America. A poor economic situation due to chaos of rebellious battles led to much of Ireland’s population living an unsanitary lifestyle in mud huts well into the late 1800s. These living conditions led to diseases of more than half the population. When the Irish Americans first settled in Boston, they lived crammed into small, single-home houses with at least a couple more families. Many shared cellar, attic, and crawl spaces for living quarters (Youtube, 2011). Overall Assimilation Assimilation in reference to the Italians and the Irish is much more complex and has become an identity reference in itself. Being the weak minority has demanded the Italians and Irish to accept and disregard many of their own practices to satisfy the dominate. Unlike the Irish, many Italians did not stick together, but lived spread-out and separated from others. In fact, some tensions developed between some Italians groups based on what streets and neighborhood they lived on and in. Inside conflicts like this led to outside conflicts as Americans began to depict Italian Americans as a dark and devious group within press. Italian Americans worked hard to reverse this depiction and to adhere to the dominate rule of society. When Mussolini began to restore Italy to what many people believed that to the equivalent of the Roman Empire eras, Italian Americans felt sense of pride. Mussolini knowing that he needed the approval of Italians worked hard to earn their respect. The world viewed Mussolini as a strong leader, and this view reflected off of the proud Italian Americans. However, when Mussolini declared war on the U.S. by joining forces with other fascist leaders, Italian Americans began to receive much ridicule from the dominate social class again. Meanwhile, Irish Americans needed little effort to complete the process of assimilation. Having many of the same physical characteristics as the dominate groups of America, made it easier to focus on progression up the social ladder. The first generation, while working factory jobs like the Italian Americans, led a more togetherness of a lifestyle with one another in their group, which created a better support system. The support system created a stronger group and led to management positions. The second  generation focused heavily on education as much as the dominate class did. Higher education led to political offices within just the third generation of Irish Americans, which led to the Irish becoming part of the dominate group in America. A great example of this would be the Kennedy Family. Power-Conflicts Predicted to be the minority by the middle of the 21st century, the dominate white has been accused of trying to oppress the minority through tactics summarized by power-conflict theories. (Feagin & Feagin, 2011). When the Italians and Irish first immigrated to America, the first jobs they assumed were factory and railroad jobs. Running these factories were members of the dominate class. It is commonly believed that money is the result of success in America, just as the sum of money and success are equal to power. The contrast between the dominate and the minority was very much defined as there was not much of a middle class. It was without effort for the dominate factory runners and railroad heads to pay the minority the minimum for the dangerous work they provided, after all, the only thing factory workers had to provide was their labor while factory runners had the product of the factories. For a long time this was a recurring issue in terms of power-conflicts. This issue created so much unrest until the two groups gained support from within their own groups to develop labor unions. Multiculturalism Multiculturalism is a term that to this day produces many unsettled feelings of both unrest and excitement. America, regarded as the Melting Pot of many cultures is not even a fully multicultural nation, as this country has taken almost three hundred years to see the first African American president. While the Italians and the Irish have worked hard to assimilate to the ways of this nation, they have also brought their culture onto this nation as well. Christopher Columbus day is proudly recognized by Italians as he was always considered the son of Italy. His finding of the new world has been an amazing accomplishment for the Italians. When the Italians finally had a voice in congress, they pushed to make the day a federal holiday (Youtube, 2011). Meanwhile, the strong religion practice as Catholics has also prompted holidays in favor of the Irish, such as St. Patrick’s Day. Without  the push by these groups to recognize these days, America may have not done so otherwise. It is important that days that attribute much to other cultures be recognized by America to promote multiculturalism. For example another federal holiday that reminds America of equal rights among equal groups is Martin Luther King Day. Conclusion In the late 1800s and early 1900s Italian and Irish Americans came to American to take advantage of the opportunities. The Italians settled primarily in Chicago, while the Irish settled in Boston. The two groups worked hard to assimilate through the trials and tribulations of power-conflicts and the everlasting multiculturalism. While the groups assimilated well by becoming an American version of their ethnicity, they also left an imprint on the overall culture of America. When both groups achieved political offices, days that were influential to their groups became federal holidays. References Declatation of Independence. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charter/declatation_transcript.html Feagin, J. R., & Feagin, C. B. (2011). Racial and Ethnic Relations (9th ed.). New York, NY: Prentice Hall. Library of Congress. (2014, May). Immigration†¦Irish. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationssandactivities/presentations/immigration/irish6.html Youtube. (2011, December). And they Came to Chicago: The Italian American Legacy. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqeikaWQCyo Youtube. (2011, July). The Irish in America Part 1. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0sZ_jWcyl

Digital Fortress Chapter 43

A jaunty forty-five, Chad Brinkerhoff was well-pressed, well-groomed, and well-informed. His summer-weight suit, like his tan skin, showed not a wrinkle or hint of wear. His hair was thick, sandy blond, and most importantly-all his own. His eyes were a brilliant blue-subtly enhanced by the miracle of tinted contact lenses. He surveyed the wood-paneled office around him and knew he had risen as far as he would rise in the NSA. He was on the ninth floor-Mahogany Row. Office 9A197. The Directorial Suite. It was a Saturday night, and Mahogany Row was all but deserted, its executives long gone-off enjoying whatever pastimes influential men enjoyed in their leisure. Although Brinkerhoff had always dreamed of a â€Å"real† post with the agency, he had somehow ended up as a â€Å"personal aide†-the official cul de sac of the political rat race. The fact that he worked side by side with the single most powerful man in American intelligence was little consolation. Brinkerhoff had graduated with honors from Andover and Williams, and yet here he was, middle-aged, with no real power-no real stake. He spent his days arranging someone else's calendar. There were definite benefits to being the director's personal aide-Brinkerhoff had a plush office in the directorial suite, full access to all the NSA departments, and a certain level of distinction that came from the company he kept. He ran errands for the highest echelons of power. Deep down Brinkerhoff knew he was born to be a PA-smart enough to take notes, handsome enough to give press conferences, and lazy enough to be content with it. The sticky-sweet chime of his mantel clock accented the end of another day of his pathetic existence. Shit, he thought. Five o'clock on a Saturday. What the hell am I doing here? â€Å"Chad?† A woman appeared in his doorway. Brinkerhoff looked up. It was Midge Milken, Fontaine's internal security analyst. She was sixty, slightly heavy, and, much to the puzzlement of Brinkerhoff, quite appealing. A consummate flirt and an ex-wife three times over, Midge prowled the six-room directorial suite with a saucy authority. She was sharp, intuitive, worked ungodly hours, and was rumored to know more about the NSA's inner workings than God himself. Damn, Brinkerhoff thought, eyeing her in her gray cashmere-dress. Either I'm getting older, or she's looking younger. â€Å"Weekly reports.† She smiled, waving a fanfold of paper. â€Å"You need to check the figures.† Brinkerhoff eyed her body. â€Å"Figures look good from here.† â€Å"Really Chad,† she laughed. â€Å"I'm old enough to be your mother.† Don't remind me, he thought. Midge strode in and sidled up to his desk. â€Å"I'm on my way out, but the director wants these compiled by the time he gets back from South America. That's Monday, bright and early.† She dropped the printouts in front of him. â€Å"What am I, an accountant?† â€Å"No, hon, you're a cruise director. Thought you knew that.† â€Å"So what am I doing crunching numbers?† She ruffled his hair. â€Å"You wanted more responsibility. Here it is.† He looked up at her sadly. â€Å"Midge†¦ I have no life.† She tapped her finger on the paper. â€Å"This is your life, Chad Brinkerhoff.† She looked down at him and softened. â€Å"Anything I can get you before I go?† He eyed her pleadingly and rolled his aching neck. â€Å"My shoulders are tight.† Midge didn't bite. â€Å"Take an aspirin.† He pouted. â€Å"No back rub?† She shook her head. â€Å"Cosmopolitan says two-thirds of backrubs end in sex.† Brinkerhoff looked indignant. â€Å"Ours never do!† â€Å"Precisely.† She winked. â€Å"That's the problem.† â€Å"Midge-â€Å" â€Å"Night, Chad.† She headed for the door. â€Å"You're leaving?† â€Å"You know I'd stay,† Midge said, pausing in the doorway, â€Å"but I do have some pride. I just can't see playing second fiddle-particularly to a teenager.† â€Å"My wife's not a teenager,† Brinkerhoff defended. â€Å"She just acts like one.† Midge gave him a surprised look. â€Å"I wasn't talking about your wife.† She battered her eyes innocently. â€Å"I was talking about Carmen.† She spoke the name with a thick Puerto Rican accent. Brinkerhoff's voice cracked slightly. â€Å"Who?† â€Å"Carmen? In food services?† Brinkerhoff felt himself flush. Carmen Huerta was a twenty-seven-year-old pastry chef who worked in the NSA commissary. Brinkerhoff had enjoyed a number of presumably secret after-hours flings with her in the stockroom. She gave him a wicked wink. â€Å"Remember, Chad†¦ Big Brother knows all.† Big Brother? Brinkerhoff gulped in disbelief. Big Brother watches the STOCKROOMS too? Big Brother, or â€Å"Brother† as Midge often called it, was a Centrex 333 that sat in a small closetlike space off the suite's central room. Brother was Midge's whole world. It received data from 148 closed circuit video cameras, 399 electronic doors, 377 phones taps, and 212 free-standing bugs in the NSA complex. The directors of the NSA had learned the hard way that 26,000 employees were not only a great asset but a great liability. Every major security breach in the NSA's history had come from within. It was Midge's job as internal security analyst, to watch everything that went on within the walls of the NSA†¦ including, apparently, the commissary stockroom. Brinkerhoff stood to defend himself, but Midge was already on her way out. â€Å"Hands above the desk,† she called over her shoulder. â€Å"No funny stuff after I go. The walls have eyes.† Brinkerhoff sat and listened to the sound of her heels fading down the corridor. At least he knew Midge would never tell. She was not without her weaknesses. Midge had indulged in a few indiscretions of her own-mostly wandering back rubs with Brinkerhoff. His thoughts turned back to Carmen. He pictured her lissome body, those dark thighs, that AM radio she played full blast-hot San Juan salsa. He smiled. Maybe I'll drop by for a snack when I'm done. He opened the first printout. CRYPTO-PRODUCTION/EXPENDITURE His mood immediately lightened. Midge had given him a freebie; the Crypto report was always a piece of cake. Technically he was supposed to compile the whole thing, but the only figure the director ever asked for was the MCD-the mean cost per decryption. The MCD represented the estimated amount it cost TRANSLTR to break a single code. As long as the figure was below $1,000 per code, Fontaine didn't flinch. A grand a pop. Brinkerhoff chuckled. Our tax dollars at work. As he began plowing through the document and checking the daily MCDs, images of Carmen Huerta smearing herself with honey and confectioner's sugar began playing in his head. Thirty seconds later he was almost done. The Crypto data was perfect-as always. But just before moving on to the next report, something caught his eye. At the bottom of the sheet, the last MCD was off. The figure was so large that it had carried over into the next column and made a mess of the page. Brinkerhoff stared at the figure in shock. 999,999,999? He gasped. A billion dollars? The images of Carmen vanished. A billion-dollar code? Brinkerhoff sat there a minute, paralyzed. Then in a burst of panic, he raced out into the hallway. â€Å"Midge! Comeback!†

Education Journal Article Essay

I have been working with children for quite some time and I have always wondered why some children were coming to school being able to communicate better than others. With that being an interest of mine, I chose the article Ways of Talking: Patterns of Parent-Child Discourse and the Implications for Classroom Learning (Roseanne L. Flores, Educational Horizons 77 no1 25-9 Fall ’98). The purpose of this article was to examine parent-child talk within two groups of parents from the New York City area. The questions posed for this study were 1) Does home environment i.e, culture or socioeconomic status, lead to different types of discourse practices, and 2) Does one type of discourse practice parallel classroom discourse better, and if so, what are the implications for education (Flores, 1998)? The research was conducted at two sites in New York City. A Bronx city public school servicing kindergarten children from a low socioeconomic status composed primarily of Latino and African-American children, and an elementary school servicing gifted children ranging from nursery school to eighth grade from a diverse economic and ethnic background. There were a total of fourteen children and their parents who participated in the study. Seven children and their parents were from the public school and seven from the gifted school. Each parent and child set were given a tape recorder and were asked to record two mealtime conversations with their child; one conversation from the weekend and one during the week. The purpose of the recordings was to examine how parents and their children talk to each other in everyday contexts. The parents were able to select the meal they wanted to record,  the location of the tape recorder, and the time the taping began and ended. The dialogue practices engaged in by parents and children from this study were dramatically different between the groups (Flores, 1998). The results/answers to the questions are as follows: 1. Does home environment i. e, culture or socioeconomic status, lead to different types of discourse practices? -The parent-child pair from the gifted program engaged in more parent-initiated, child response, parent-evaluation dialogues than did the children selected from the non-gifted program. Children from the gifted program initiated more questions and had parents who responded to their questions by probing for additional information than did the children from the non-gifted program (Flores, 1998). The conversations from the students in the gifted program were more open-ended and mirrored classroom dialogue practices. The conversations from the students in the non-gifted program were more close-ended, yes-no-style dialogues (Flores, 1998). 2. Does one type of discourse practice parallel classroom talk more than other forms? – The information from the data indicated that there were different styles of talking that children and parents engage in and that in fact one style reflected classroom dialogue practice better. The results showed the children from the gifted program engaged more in patterns of dialogue with their parents that were reflective of teacher talk. Parents replicated teacher talk at home by evaluating and pushing children to think and they engaged in more topic-centered talk mimicking what teachers do in the classrooms. While the conversations with the parents and students from the non-gifted program were more yes-no interactions and closed ended discussions (Flores, 1998). In conclusion, parents and children from different social and economic backgrounds clearly engage in different dialogue practices. Certain styles of discourse mirror classroom practices more than others (Flores, 1998). The assumption made concerning young children’s ability to enter into school during their formative years and to engage in language as a means to communication is a faulty one. The research demonstrated the communication styles are often quite different even though the basic prerequisites for communication have been met (Flores, 1998). It is important to avoid the misapprehension that the children and their parents from the non-gifted programs are incapable of engaging in teacher-type talk. They may not talk in this way because it does not have the same meanings in their community (Flores, 1998). In order for students to engage in the conversations that are going on in the schools on a level where they understand, parents will have to learn to speak the language and participate in the school more. Teachers will have to work hard in convincing parents the importance of learning and functioning within the school culture so they will instill that in their children. The article clearly states that parents and their children should not stop talking in their â€Å"home-language† they just have to learn the art of â€Å"code-switching†, being able to know when to use certain dialogue. References Flores, R. L. (1998). Ways of Talking: Patterns of Parent- Child Discourse and the Implications for Classroom Learning. Educational Horizons 77 no1 25-9 ———————– 5

The Islamic World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Islamic World - Essay Example r having a leader but he notes that it should be someone who is given divine help and majesty flowing from God since it is God who â€Å"chooses one member of the human race (Mulk, Pg. 1)† to lead others. Considering the opinion of those who claimed to be part of the kin of Muhammad, Tabari reports that Abbas said that, â€Å"the kin of God’s Messenger (Tabari, Pg. 1)† are best suited to lead Muslims. The clan of the prophet is thus supposed to give leaders to the Muslim world. On the other hand, figures such as Al-Husayn have been reported to suggest that leaders who cause strife and differences between groups of people are undesirable (Tabari [2]). Most importantly, it seems that there is a common thread between all the sources that power must be given to the person who has it, it cannot be taken by force. This gives a sort of democratic tint to the manner in which the leader of the Muslim world is supposed to be selected. The selection may come from a source which is divine or the groups of selectees may be limited to the clan of the prophet but it is not a process by which someone can usurp power. Even the first leader after Muhammad was willing to admit that he should be chastised if he were to stray from the right path. In essence, the first leader can be credited for creating a leadership position that is not unquestionable. Additionally, all sources consider the leader to have both a political and a religious role as the leader of all Muslims. Even though the followers have to give obedience to the leader, they can fight against him if they consider his actions to be against God or God’s messenger. From the sources as well as the information given about what a leader should be and where the leader should come from, it seems that the early Muslim society was certainly traumatic and in turmoil. Muhammad died without a clearly named successor and this creates a situation where every individual can give a personal criteria for what a leader should be as

In relation to perception,what does it mean that we all lok at Essay

In relation to perception,what does it mean that we all lok at different situations in the work place though different lenses Why it is important for a manager - Essay Example The mind then processes it and makes it available for retrieval. The perceiver then responds according to the interpretations of the perceived situation or object. In the workplace, it is very important for a manager to understand how perception may help or hinder his management. There are different situations happening within the workplace that may affect the performance of the management and the employees depending on their perception of the issue or situation. The issues and events happening around the workplace are interpreted differently depending on their rank and status in the workplace. For example, an employee may see a rewards program as ineffective because of the lack of enticing rewards it offers and a manager may see it as ineffective because of the lack of participation from the employees. Depending on his role in the workplace, the individual interprets the situation in relation to his level of work. Understanding that the workplace is a vast field of opinions and interpretations, the manager can use his perception and that of his subordinates to improve their work performance and work relationships. The primary responsibility of a manager is to oversee and to manage the business or his assigned department, including the people within. With this responsibility comes the different situations in which he has to use his decision-making skills effectively and efficiently. Perception is very important in fulfilling this responsibility. Filtering out information that are not necessary to fulfill the task is important (Howard n.d.). Knowing what is needed information and what is not needed is important as it will define how the manager interprets and analyzes the situation. When making decisions, analyzing facts is more important than judging the situation based on intuition. Perception of an action depends on the meaning attributed to the

Bernini in france Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bernini in france - Essay Example It also reveals the confrontation between the king and the artist of italian orgin.He was in Paris for few months and presented some designs for the east front of the Louvre. But his desgns were rejected by the French court. His only notable work was a bust of Louis XIV which was regarded as a standard in royal portaiture during the era. Berninis projects in France were turned down by the court in favour of the stern and classic propasals of Frerch architect Claude perrault(Harrison, Wood& Gaiger).. It is an irony of history that Bernini’s plans were never realised. All his plans failed to please the kings powerful minister, Colbert. Moreover he encountered considerable opposition from local sculptors because of pure jealosy (Harrison, Wood& Gaiger). Bernini did not have much regard to french culture and Frrench artists. During his short stay in Paris he had many disagreements with them. He did not waste a single oppurtunity is degrading them too. The journal by Chantolou depicts that Bernini often had a prejudice against French culture and society. He regarded French artists inferior from their Italian counterparts. He often had heated discussions with French artists , namely Charles Perrault, Jean Warin and Louis Le,Vau who was Colberts chief architect(Wolfe). During his childhood days, the young Bernini visited visited Saint Peters. He wished to built a mighty throne for the apostle. In 1626, he received patronage from the Pope Urban VII and worked for the basilicca for 50 years. Berninis work at the bascillica include the baldacchino, the chapel of the sacrament, the plan of the niches , loggias in the piers of the dome of the bascillica and the chair of Saint Peter(Lavin). The first work baldacchino was a bronze masterpiece. It was thirty meters tall and claimed to be the largest bronze piece of art in the world. Bernini also built new structures and made modifications and extensions to

Feasibility study of setting up a business Assignment

Feasibility study of setting up a business - Assignment Example The primary objective of this study is to find out if it is feasible to set up a fitness/gym shop. Secondary Objectives: The secondary objectives are mainly research, analyses and evaluations. The following types of research will be undertaken: Research into the local economy. Household incomes, unemployment rates as well as demographics within the local area have a significant influence on the success of the proposed business. Finding out and analysing those figures will be necessary to evaluate as accurately as possible. Primary Research into the target market. This is a vital part of the whole study, as it will tell about consumer needs and wants. It will reveal whether there is an interest in such a shop and hence be helpful in order to decide if setting this business up will be feasible. Analysis of primary research. The findings of the different types of research will provide this study with an overview of the demand of the proposed business. However, financial limitations will lead to outcomes that are not completely reliable. Therefore it is necessary to justify the conclusions made. Research into the market. Analysing this market will be of use to decide on which strategy is most appropriate. Assessing the competition the proposed business is going to face will help to adopt suitable marketing strategies. Spending habits as well as holes in the market will hopefully be spotted. Analysis of secondary research. The secondary research gathered will be vital in order to create a marketing plan. The findings about competition and demographics will reveal where it is most suitable to set up the shop. Investment Appraisal. In order to decide where to locate the proposed shop an investment appraisal will be carried out. Qualitative factors are going to be... The result of the first part of the survey reveals a lot. It shows that those who buy supplements purchase them on the Internet, which concludes that there is no or hardly any competition in the area. The result that 99% would like to get consultation in that area explains why there are only 20% buying those products. There is a lack of knowledge about supplements like why it should be taken, by whom, when and how much. From the result that 96% of those buying these products get it from the Internet it can be concluded that they received little if any consultation. As the intention is to employ staff with knowledge about nutrition this can be seen as a good selling point. The 4% who buy supplements elsewhere got them from the fitness centre they are member of. However, those studios are very limited because you need a nutritionist’s degree to sell them.

Anti bullying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Anti bullying - Essay Example In order to gain domination over others, bullies use coercion or physical assault, threats or verbal forms of harassment of which they normally direct towards identified ‘soft’ targets whom are likely to offer less resistance to the bullies. According to Lemus, bullies rationalize and justify their behaviors based on their differences with the victims on appearance, gender, class, behavior, religion, race, sexuality, or abilities (23-25). In the writings by Sullivan, he stated that bullying is normally classified into four key categories that include cyber bullying, physical bullying, verbal bullying, and emotional bullying, and when the bullies operate in a group it is termed as mobbing (68-71). According to Hadikin and O’Driscoll, cases of bullying are more rampant at schools where majority of those who are physically strong, have unique capabilities, or come from a financially well-off background, tend to look down upon others whom they perceive as weak targets (78-82). In addition, cases of bullying also exists within the workplace, where in most cases those who are in senior positions tend to show tendency of bullying toward those who are in junior positions. Bullying within schools and at workplaces is termed as peer abuse. This present informative essay is divided into a three part series that begins with the causes of bullying, the effects of bullying, and anti-bullying practices that should be implemented largely in schools. In the studies conducted by Lemus, he stated that bullying is caused by social factors that alter the behavior and attitudes of the bullies who pick on bad behavior of intimidating and harassing other people (32-34). Primarily, Sprung et al. stated that most bullies normally come from dysfunctional homes where they are exposed to violent punishments or regular violence within the household and even uncaring attitudes from their

Tinnitus and Noise-Induced Hearing Loss Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Tinnitus and Noise-Induced Hearing Loss - Essay Example In this discussion tinnitus is defined as: "The perception of a sound that results exclusively from the activity within the nervous system without any corresponding mechanical, vibrating activity with the cochlea." Almost every known hearing problem is in someway associated with tinnitus. For approximately 40 million Americans, it is a permanent condition. It is considered a debilitating condition for around 10 million of those individuals (USACHPPM, 2010). It is important to know that tinnitus does not cause hearing loss. However, the two together can interfere with concentration, focus, and attention span within an individual. Noise-induced hearing loss and tinnitus have even been associated with insomnia and depression (USACHPPM, 2010). So, what is the treatment for noise-induced tinnitus According to USACHPPM (2010), "The short answer is that chronic, noise-induced tinnitus is not treatable, but there are management strategies that attempt to control reactions to the tinnitus."

Self Esteem Essay Example for Free

Self Esteem Essay The term self-esteem comes from a Greek word meaning reverence for self. The self part of self-esteem pertains to the values, beliefs and attitudes that we hold about ourselves. The esteem part of self-esteem describes the value and worth that one gives oneself. Simplistically self-esteem is the acceptance of ourselves for who and what we are at any given time in our lives. It is very important because it affects how you think, act and even how you relate to other people. It allows you to live life to your potential. There are two sides of self esteem; Low self esteem and high self esteem. What is low self esteem? Low self esteem means poor confidence and that also causes negative thoughts which mean that you are likely to give up easily rather than face challenges. In addition, it has a direct bearing on your happiness and wellbeing. Low self esteem comes from a poor self image. Yourself image is based on how you see yourself. Do you think you are a good, reliable, hardworking, honest or friendly person? Do you like what you see when you look in the mirror or do you believe others look better and dress better than you? Low self esteem feeds your negative thinking and causes you to believe the criticism others make of you. Do you take what others say and not speak up? This can cause you to lose confidence so it is vital to end negative thoughts if you want to build your self esteem. On the other hand, high self esteem is the opposite of low self esteem. If you have a high level of self esteem you will be confident, happy, highly motivated and have the right attitude to succeed. Therefore, when we are happy about ourselves, not caring about what people say about us, we live a happier life, a healthier one, a more successful one Best of all, we live in peak performance. Happier lifestyle comes from within, it enables happy and relaxed cells, and it controls stress. Happy cells lead to a prolonged life expectancy which means extended period to lead an even happier life! What a great attribute if you can only come to terms with who you are, regardless of whatever any person says about you. Remember life is too short to live by other people? s opinions and reflections. It is said that, â€Å"No one can make you feel inferior without your consent. †

Creativity And Its Importance Commerce Essay

Creativity And Its Importance Commerce Essay According to the oxford dictionary of the English language creativity is the use of imagination or original ideas to create something and innovation is the action or process of making changes in something established, especially by introducing new methods, ideas, or products. However creativity and innovation are so much more; they are the cornerstones of our economy, the foundations of our modern society and high quality of living, what gives meaning and purpose to our existence. Creativity is a unique characteristic of the human race. Of all the creatures roaming this planet, only humans have the ability of abstract thinking and creativity. Our history is the history of human creativity and innovations. From the first steps that Homo sapiens took on Europe, the weapons they created to hunt for food and fend off dangers, to the pendants that they crafted to indicate statues and the amazing petroglyphs found in France (Vallà ©e des Merveilles), Greece (Irakleia Cyclades), Italy (Bagnolo stele) and Spain (Galicia). Creativity and innovation are what created the pyramids in Egypt, Stonehenge in the UK and the megalithic monuments in Marta. Innovation is what armed the Greeks in Thermopylae and gave them a tactical advantage against an army ten times their own, and again in Salamis and Plataea. Creativity is what build the Parthenon and guided the arm of Phidias to sculpt some of the most important everlasting sculptures this world has ever seen. Then the Maced onians and other Greeks of Alexander the Great started spreading on most of the known world, and after them the romans and the mighty legions established the first superpower and Rome as the first mega city and all these started from few creative people that envisioned and created new ideas, new technologies and methods, new innovations (Association, 2008). Innovations, that paved the way, after hundreds of years of darkness, the dark ages, for the Renaissance and the age of Creativity; Michelangelo, Rafael, the great Leonardo Da Vinci as well as Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Gutenberg. The human races intellectual revolution, all based on creativity and innovations. Our modern age starts with the industrial revolution that took place in the UK in 1750. Few very creative very innovative people started shaping the world to what it is now. Brunel, Watt and Maudslay; their dreams and creations can still be seen in the city we live in. The British Empire and the establishment of the first form of international trade and together with it the first multinational corporations like the Dutch East India Company that helped create the first global economic ideas and theories, as theses were described by Adam Smith in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). And then to the 19th century of the two world wars, but also of Dali, Picasso, Matisse and Einstein, Plank, Bohr and Heisenberg. Our history, the human existence on this planet, is a hymn to creativity, innovation and survival (Association, 2008). Creativity plays a very important role in the improvement of our society and of our living standard. New innovations make our lives easier, allow us to do things that we could not do before, as well as create workplaces and bust the economy (Bennett, 2006). Everywhere we look creativity and innovations is there; from an art gallery displaying Van Goghs masterpieces, to our mobile phones that provide us with information and functionality that previous generations could only dream of, to the way we shop using the internet and the new digital economy we live it. I, and the majority of people in the western world, can, from the comfort of my home, stream my favour movie and watch it on my smart TV any time I want, order a pizza online by using my mobile and at the same time keep an eye on the FTSE 250, live from New York. Actually digital and mobile applications and devices can do more, a lot more. They help people with diabetic monitor their disease, they guide millions of motorists, wi th the use of GPS, to their destinations, they connect the entire world, as well as help me, and thousands of students, find the information I want in order to write this assignment. Innovations and creativity in the medical field help people live longer, healthier lives, cure diseases that once thought to be incurable, and provide comfort and hope to all. Even things we now have come to consider small, trivial, every-day, like running water, public transportation or the post we receive every morning, were the inspirations and work for people, and are very important in rising our quality of life. Can anyone in the western world even consider every-day life without running water or even without the weather forecast? I think not. Our modern society, has recognised the importance of creativity and continuous innovation, and improvement, and has adapted both its educational and business systems to encourage it, incubate it and reword it (Burleson, 2005). Schools promote creativity and some even go as far as trying to teach pupils how to be creative. However, creativity is not something you can force on someone. Creativity is the result of a number of conditions that have to be met, with the primary being freedom. Freedom to speak, freedom to write, freedom to think and express yourself as you like, and freedom to choose what to do, what to create. Also, creativity is not the characteristic of an individual, no matter how intelligent, creative and innovative this individual is; it is a social characteristic; small ideas, in a free environment with no communication barriers, linking up, combining, to create a big great idea. It is not a coincidence that there are periods in human history that great minds come tog ether and lay the foundations, or start, industrial-scientific-intellectual-spiritual revolutions. The great Athenian philosophers of the 5th century BC, the great British engineers of the 1700s century, the great theoretical physicists of the beginning of the 19th century, and now the great digital minds of our era, are some of the examples that one can think. Creativity can be taught, however, as with all other aspects of the human mind and nature, creativity is a talent too. Some people have it and some do not. As a society however, we are a creative innovative society, a society that looks into the future, creates ideas, dreams and designs about how it wants this future to be and then starts working on making it happen (Casson, 2007). Business, innovation and creativity are interlinked terms. Business, any business, cannot exist without creativity. The common characteristic between a broker in New York, a fair trade luxury furniture shop owner in Islington, London, an independent cocoa farmer in Equator and a the owner of a silk textiles family business in China is creativity. The very notion of starting up your own business, take calculated risks and give your best to succeed, is the definition for entrepreneurial creativity. Innovation is what makes the difference, what gives a company a competitive edge, what turns a small garage business to a multinational with offices around the world and with billions of pounds in its corporate accounts. Creativity, realised through innovation is what drives our economy, is what capitalism is built on, is what creates companies like Apple, Microsoft, and Dyson and Goldman-Sacks (Davis, 2009). The important role of creativity and innovation in the entrepreneurial process Every sector of business and every sector of life is subject to creativity and innovation. If is strange that when the word creativity is mentioned most people think of painters or sculptors or even photographers, the likes of Modigliani and Petrocelli, and when the word innovation is used they think of technological advances, like 3D TVs, and companies like Apple and Siemens. If for example the banking industry is used as an example of innovation in a lecture, the majority of people from the audience will most like wonder about the appropriacy of the use of the word, when it comes to financial institutions such as Goldman-Sacks, J. P. Morgan and even the Royal Bank of Scotland. However, the financial institutions that compose our economic system are the epitome of innovation. Their continuous innovation in creating new financial products and finding ways to generate wealth is what led to the technological, commercial, entrepreneurial and consumption boom that started after the end o f the 2nd world war and is still going strong now, even after many financial crisis that this same system produced, with the most serious being that of 2008 with many countries and millions of people still experiencing its effects. Nowadays creativity and innovation is the driving force of the economy, usually in the form of digital and mobile applications and devices. Economists have even given this new type of economy a, very appropriate, name; digital economy. Iphones, ipads, tablet PCs, smartphones and millions of applications that help the user cook a nice meal, pay his bills online or even monitor his diabetes are the life-line of the post 2008 crises economy. And rightly so, as they provide incredible flexibility and utility to the users, improving their way of life and quality of life, and at the same time generating new jobs and money. They also provide a platform on which small businesses, utilising the benefits of the new technologies and the new digital marketplace, can compete even with multinational corporations in a global marketplace. However the link between creativity, which gives birth to innovations, with the business process is deeper than just new products and services, no matter how revolutionary these might be. The whole idea of starting up a new business, a new company, comes from ones creativity. (Eysenck, 2008) The starting up of a business is creation. The new entrepreneur wants to be independent, to do what he enjoys and believes he is best in doing, to leave his mark, to create. It is creativity that enables an entrepreneur to act on the opportunities that present to him, in order to create competitive advantage for his company. His company does not need to be about revolutionary technology, new designs or new products. He does not need to be an inspirational writer, a painter or an architect. He is creative because he made that first very important step of becoming an entrepreneur. So, not all entrepreneurs are innovative, however those who are, shape the world we live in with their creations. Innov ation is the next step of creativity; it is its materialisation and the means to generate wealth. It is, or it can be, the financial link between ones thoughts and fantasies with the economy. Creativity is the heart of entrepreneurship and innovation is the oxygen that is keeping it alive. Creativity needs a spark and innovation needs fuel. These are provided in the form of physical rewards and generation of wealth; money. Money has been blamed for many things, and most of the times rightly so, however, together with an inherited ability and need for humans to be creative, it is the most common motive for business creativity and innovation. Not the only, but one of the most significant reasons why people want to become entrepreneurs and push themselves to create something new, something exciting, something that other people, many other people, will buy. So creativity and innovation are fundamental factors of wealth generation which is the cornerstone of our capitalistic economic system, which is the only applicable economic system in the world, as we speak. One can even go as far as saying that creativity and innovation is business. Is the creative process a way to trigger self-actualisation and motivation? The question about what motivates us humans to do what we do, to wake up in the morning to go to work, to wait three hours in the rain in order to buy tickets for our favourite pop group or to create new art, technology and literature has fascinated many people before, among them many famous philosophers, like Hume and Kant. When someone first asks about what motivates us to do what we do, the first answer he will usually receive is money. However, this in not, in the majority of times, true, or at least, not the entire truth. Self-actualisation is the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming (Goble, 1970). Maslow in his theory of basic needs, states that the goals for self-actualisation are as fundamental as those of education, continues learning and self-improvement and creativity. These goals or some may say needs or fundamentals of human existence promote and focus on learning in relationship to imagination, creativity, experience and challenge. However, all these notions are interconnected between them. Learning, experience and creativity are essential to self-actualisation, as self-actualisation is a fundamental requirement for learning and creativity. The idea of self-actualisation comes from Maslow. He describes two human need systems; the deficiency needs system, also called D values, and the Being system, also called B values. D values denote the defensive nature of humans that leads us to be as safe as possible in all situations, but sometimes stops us from experiencing, improving and growing, and B values are the opposite, is what drives us to learn, experience, get in love, try new things and enhance our abilities, taking risks. According to Maslow, the most self-actualised people are mature adults with a history of a productive involvement in their work (Maslow, 1943). Creativity is one of the fundamental ways to trigger self-actualisation and motivation. When one is creative, he feels good about himself, he feels and is productive, his blood rushes through his veins and his mind is on fire. He is creating something new, he is full of energy and confidence. Also, usually creativity means being social, coming in contact with many people, who themselves are creative and exchanging ideas and opinions, networking, interacting and synthesising hunches and observations to theories and great ideas. Just the process of doing so is what motivates many people and the result and excitement to see your idea materialised what motivates the rest (Becherer, 2008). High self-confidence and belief to you, to your abilities and what you can do, which comes from being creative, being alive and contributing to the society, are the basic ingredients of self-actualisation, which lead you to accomplish your targets, and set new, which again kick-start the creative process that triggers your motivation and enhances your self-actualisation. The creative process, self-actualisation and motivation are all parts of human nature. How creativity can help us in problem solving process? The first step of problem solving is to define the problem. Although this may sound trivial, in many cases it is not. Many people and organisations rush in to tackle a problem by finding a solution, without previously knowing that the problem really is. So, to achieve a solution, one first has to fully understand the problem. Once the problems have been clearly defined, the most important factor in solving it is creativity. Creativity is required in order to create a ask the right questions about the problem and find the correct and appropriate answers to them, creativity is necessary in order to provide out of the box ideas and suggestions and creativity is what defines the process of finding a new way in doing things. Brainstorming is a very popular way to solve a problem and it is a characteristically creative method. It involves the rapid exchange of ideas, any ideas, about the solution to a specific problem. What it does actually is to help people to come up with out of the box unconventional ideas and solutions, which in the majority of times are the combination of various ideas that are thrown during the start of the brainstorming session (McNamara, 2010). Also, creativity is what helps us to overcome the, very natural and common negative initial reaction to a problem; the anger and despair that a problem can cause, and actually make something good out of a bad situation but putting our minds and talents to work in order to find a solution that may just not be the solution to one problem but many (McNamara, 2010). A good example of a very creative solution to a common problem that later became a lifesaving method in medicine is the use of ultrasounds. When the first metallic ships and buildings started to appear, a problem manifested in the form of cracks in the metals that had the potential to result in catastrophic failure. The solution that was improvised in order to detect such material failures was the use of ultrasounds. Soon enough ultrasounds were used in humans to image their anatomy and monitor their health. Ultrasounds are nowadays used in every hospital, having a variety of applications such as in obstetrics, oncology and dermatology. Problem solving requires the generation, the production of something new; a new idea, a new device, a new product or new services. This is what creativity is. Examples of organisations that foster Creativity process Dyson One of the most creative and innovating companies in the UK is of course Dyson. Dyson is a modern British icon of design, functionality, creativity and innovations. The company was started in 1933 by James Dyson, an inventor and designer, after he graduated from the Royal College of Art. What started as a tiny company with a single product, a vacuum cleaner, developed in a tiny workshop in the backward of Sir Dysons family house, is now a multinational company, that sells its products in over 50 countries and which employs more than 3,000 people. The companys headquarters are located in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, UK (Dyson, 2012). Technological innovations such as the cyclone technology and the air multiplier technology have changed the industry of commercial home appliances, giving tremendous status to Dyson. The company makes extensive use of computer aided design software as well as 3D printing and 3D visualisation technologies. It also actively promotes creativity and innovation by encouraging its employees to come forward with new ideas, and by having weekly brainstorming sessions where all employees, no maters their speciality and rank, can seat together and exchange ideas in order to provide solutions in existing problems or suggest new products, technologies and methods. The company also promotes training and education, as it is a firm supporter of the notion that the more your get involved and study something in depth, the more creative ideas arise (Dyson, 2012). In 2002 Sir Dyson founded the James Dyson foundation to support design and engineering education, and the creative process. Google Google is one of the most powerful and rich companies in the world. The company was founded in 1998 and it became a public limited company in 2004. Google currently employs more than 53,000 people worldwide. The companys headquarters, Googleplex, are located in Mountain View, California, United States (Google, 2012). Google is not just an innovator in terms of technology, networking, mobile applications and the internet, but also in terms of company structure and employee motivation and creativity encouragement techniques. One of its most popular and innovative company policies is what Google calls personal projects time (Google, 2012). In essence Google allows and encourages every one of its employees to spend a whole day, every week, working on their personal projects and ideas. Also the company has created an internal blackboard that all personal finished projects are published for testing and for generation of discussion, cooperation and the creation of even more, more advanced projects. Finally, these projects are published on the internet, on Google Labs, for everyone to test and feedback. Google actively promotes and supports innovation and creativity and has faith on the abilities of its employees to deliver outstanding new ideas and products. It is a company founded on a great idea and still working towards the next great idea. It provides a work environment that is designed to keep its employees happy and satisfied and cater to all their needs, in order for them to be able to give back their great ideas. It promotes communication, freedom of expression and clearly sets the priority targets which are none other than the generation of new great ideas and the improvement of old. It is an environment that creativity is not forced, it just happens. Google search, Android, Google Maps and Google Goggles are but a few of the results of the abundance of creativity that this company has (Google, 2012). Apple Apple Inc. is nowadays considered the most innovative company in the world. Its products are rapidly reaching legendary status, with their names being used, in many occasions, to define an entire market sector and not just a product. The IPad is a good example of Apples innovation. Apple actually created the marketplace for tablet PC with its introduction of IPad. Many people will refer to any tablet PC as an IPad. The same goes for the IPhone which was the first, real, smartphone, the smartphone that started the revolution we live today (Apple, 2012). Steven Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple Inc. back in 1977. Jobs and Wozniak worked in Jobs parents garage in order to create the first Apple PC. Nowadays, Apple employs more than 73,000 people around the world, has its headquarters in a 130,000 square metres in Cupertino, California, USA and generates an annual turnover in excess of 156 billion US dollars (Apple, 2012). Apple Inc. is not just a huge, very successful, very profitable company; it is one of the very few companies in the world that successfully combines, promotes and excels in creativity, innovation and design. Products like the Ipad, the Iphone and the Ipod, combine the creativity and vision of a company, and of a very charismatic man, Steven Jobs, who sought to develop (create) new revolutionary products, with innovation of continuously updating and upgrading, introducing new and improved versions with design, aesthetically pleasing, trendy, fashionable devices that are more than a mobile phone or a portable PC, they are status enchanting, life-style items (Business, 2009). Many companies have attempted to do this, very few have achieved it and only a handful have mastered it. Apple is a level above them. Of course this is not just down to the vision and charisma of Steven Jobs. Apple employs some of the most creative mind in the world and provides the conditions for them to create and innovate. The image of Steven Jobs walking around the office barefooted, chatting with his employees about ideas he or they has is characteristic about the company culture (Deutschman, 2010). In building nurseries, a small clinic, dentist, even a virtual reality game suits and more than twelve restaurants are but some of the benefits that Apple employees enjoy. Apple employees are encouraged to think outside the box, to speak up and always share their thoughts, opinions, as well as projects and ideas with their colleagues. It is an inspiring environment that actively promotes thinking. However, Apple has also contributed in the business creativity and innovation field its influence, or the influence its huge success has, to hundreds of other companies, most of them its competitors. Apple has forced its competitors to rethink their products and sales techniques, to focus on design, to innovate. Apple has made other companies creative, by changing the market and the consumers. Apple is a company that its actions reverberate in the entire business and consuming world, as well as in the technological developments of our era. Universities As the topic of this assignment requests for examples of institutes that promote creative thinking and creativity, Universities would not be mentioned here. Although, technically Universities are not companies, so they do not promote business creativity per say, they are the places, the incubators, where the next generation of CEOs, entrepreneurs, managers and directors are bummed. They are the places from where most great ideas start, and although some do not make it to the real world, some do and they change it, they live their mark and the mark of their creator on it. Examples like Mark Zuckerberg and Facebook, David Dell and Dell computers and Erik Wallenberg and Tetra Pak (Leander, 1996), are but few of thousands of great ideas that started in University. Universities are for some the most creative places in the world. They take kids and turn them into scientists and business man and leaders. Although corporate entrepreneurship does not apply here in the sense that applies with Google and Apple, individual imagination, radical viewing of the world and an environment that is designed particularly to direct the mind to create, to dream and image, more than makes up for it. The young human mind, still unshaped, still uncorrupted by the do-nots and should-nots of our world, has an unimaginable capacity for creativity, innovation and ideas generation. It only needs direction and encouragement. Universities are the creativity centres of this world. Corporations have to work closely with them in order to use this creativity in the production processes, as well as in business, for the production of new products and services and for the generation of wealth, and for the betterment of the humankind. Conclusion Creativity and innovation is the foundation of business development and the driving force behind the improvement in the quality of living the western societies have experienced the last centuries. Business is about profit and the generation of wealth. However, what motivates individuals is not just money. The human need to create and to contribute to the society, being social and belonging to a group or a big family, is a fundamental factor of creativity and innovation. Self-actualisation and status is also closely related with creativity. I think, there for I am (Britannica, 2012), to the words of Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher. Hoverer, creativity and innovation is not just food for the mind and the needs of us humans. Creativity and innovation is what has shared the world we leave in today. From the first human being that created the wheel, to creation of Democracy in ancient Greece, and from the industrial revolution to the digital revolution of our era, creativity, materialised to innovation, is everywhere, is our everyday life, our education, entertainment and work, our existence. Creativity can help us solve problems in our personal lives as well as in our business lives and can help a company overcome hard times and go from near bankruptcy to being one of the biggest and richest companies in the world (Apple). More importantly, creativity is that makes us better, what makes opens our minds and makes us see things differently and act differently. It has to be promoted, protected, and encouraged, by businesses, universities and governments alike. One can say that as the only intelligent species on this world, actually the only intelligent species known to exist in the Cosmos, is our destiny to create.

Consequences of Altered Prenatal Environment

Consequences of Altered Prenatal Environment Discuss the evidence that an altered prenatal environment (e.g. due to maternal nutritional status, stress or exposure to chemicals) has long-term consequences for reproductive function of the offspring. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis focuses on the idea that non-communicable diseases, such as coronary heart disease and diabetes, have origins in foetal development. The embryo or foetus can be exposed to certain challenges during its development that permanently alter the physiological development of that organism and this can show its effects postnatally later on in life (Moore 2017). A lot of focus has been directed towards metabolic dysfunction and problems with the cardiovascular system, but more recently it has become apparent that there are also lifelong effects of the prenatal environment on reproductive function of the offspring. Aspects of the prenatal environment include maternal malnutrition, maternal stress, maternal alcohol consumption, and maternal smoking, amongst others, which can all influence the development of the foetus and its health outcomes later on in life. However, there is a lack of evidence for humans, although offspring o f mothers affected by the Dutch Famine have been followed up throughout their life to see the effects of the acute maternal undernutrition (de Rooij et al. 2016) (Painter et al. 2006), therefore a lot of the experiments are performed on rodent, porcine and ovine models. While there are a number of differences between the mammalian models and humans, such as duration of gestation and sensitivity to the maternal environment, there are periods of exceptional vulnerability that are similar in both mammalian models and humans which allow us to map the effects of an altered prenatal environment from these animals to humans (Zambrano et al. 2014). The incidence of non-communicable diseases in adults significantly increases when maternal nutrition is compromised at vital periods of foetal development (Chavatte-Palmer et al. 2008). During the periconceptional period, it appears that the embryo has a degree of developmental plasticity and it takes advantage of this when being exposed to certain challenges in the maternal environment. This means that it changes the way it develops and adapts to the surrounding environment, which has consequences for later life. This is illustrated by the epidemiological study of female survivors of the Dutch Famine in World War II, which has shown altered reproductive function of their female offspring who were conceived during the famine. The offspring were found to have irregular menstrual cycles, increased risk of breast cancer and a younger age at which they underwent menopause (Sloboda et al. 2011). There was no significant change in the reproductive function in adults whose mothers were expo sed to the famine during late stages of pregnancy when compared to adults who were born before the famine (Painter et al. 2006), which suggests that the time around conception is very sensitive to the maternal environment. The study was conducted by authors who were fortunate to be able to collect the data that they did because, for obvious ethical reasons, a study like this could not be purposefully carried out on humans. As inhumane as the famine was, it has provided us with some useful data to ascertain what is happening in utero when maternal nutrition is compromised. Animal studies of maternal undernutrition have been conducted to add to the findings of the Dutch Famine epidemiology. In ewes, the female offspring had decreased rates of ovulation after experiencing prenatal undernutrition. Even earlier, it was found that the foetal ovary at day 47 already had altered concentrations of oogonia and meiotic arrest in the ovary was delayed even longer than usual on day 62 of foetal life (Sloboda et al. 2011). Growth restricted rats have shown staggered onset of signs of sexual maturation, for example first oestrus, mating and attainment of full fertility were separated in time rather than being simultaneous (Sloboda et al. 2011). Moreover, pregnant ewes on a calorie restricted diet produced offspring who grew up to have reduced ovarian and granulosa cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in their ovaries. This could be due to a change in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity or hormonal environment in the ovary which is regulated by the mothers nutritional status (Sloboda et al. 2011). Furthermore, maternal protein restriction in rats delays seminiferous tubule lumen formation and increases apoptosis of germ cells during the neonatal period. Histological sections of the testes of male offspring show some tubules with no lumen at all at even when they have a control diet after birth (Zambrano et al. 2014). Also, apoptosis in the testes of male neonates at postnatal day 14 is increased in those who have experience maternal protein restriction either during pregnancy, during lactation, or during both (Zambrano et al. 2014). There have been many animal studies done using various mammalian models to produce data that we can apply to humans. So far, the data has been reproducible but it is still early days in this field of science so the longer these experiments are reproduced in different models, the better and more sure we can be when advising mothers of the risk their diet may have on the health and reproductive potential of their offspring. Although poverty and undernutrition remain global crises, it is clear that overfeeding and the obesity epidemic in the Western World come with severe implications on health of the population and future generations. Several studies in animal models have demonstrated that maternal overnutrition can affect the fertility of the offspring later on in life. For example, in pregnant sheep that are overfed, the offspring experience intrauterine growth restriction and are born small for their gestational age, but also the females are born with ovarian retardation (Chavatte-Palmer et al. 2008). Additional studies have been done and have other, similar conclusions for female offspring fertility. A mouse study shows that mothers fed high fat diets during pregnancy produced female offspring with a 4-fold reduction in the number of primordial follicles in their ovaries (Cheong et al. 2014). This could be due to them having an early onset of puberty, similar to the female offspring of mothers who h ad calorie restricted diets. Similarly, the female offspring in this cohort also had fewer (1.4-fold decrease in number) antral follicles developing into Graafian follicles in their ovaries (Cheong et al. 2014). However, the cohort sizes in this study were unfortunately quite small (10-15 mice per group) and it is unclear whether or not the groups were exposed to different nutritional challenges at the same time to ensure that the process was standardised. The results could be improved by repeating them with another cohort of mice and perhaps repeating the study in different species of mice to eliminate species-specific adaptations to maternal nutrition. If the same results are able to be replicated across other mouse species, then it is more plausible that these results might also be seen in humans. Some oestrogenic compounds have been observed to have effects on ovary development in later life of neonatal rodents that were exposed to the compounds prenatally. Two examples are activin and oestrogen derivatives (Woodruff and Walker 2008). Female rats exposed prenatally to oestradiol benzoate had delayed follicle and interstitial development by day 14 of age. By day 21, many of the larger follicles in the ovary were delayed in development at the preantral and small antral follicular stage. This suggests that oestrogens inhibit follicular development (Ikeda et al. 2001). As the rats mature, the inhibited development could delay the onset of sexual maturity in the females and puberty wouldnt occur until later. It is known that steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1-) controls development of the ovary (Hanley et al. 2000), so expression levels of genes that SF-1 regulates were studied in ovaries treated with oestradiol benzoate (Ikeda et al. 2001). It was found that ovarian tissue treated with oestradiol benzoate had downregulated SF-1 as well as genes including StAR and P450SCC, which have their expression controlled under SF-1 activity. This downregulation was present from postnatal day 6-21 and was relative to control ovary. Other genes were found to not change with oestradiol benzoate treatment and some had increased expression after treatment. This results indicate that oestrogen derivatives can influence different genes related to SF-1 to be upregulated or downregulated during development of the ovary (Ikeda et al. 2001). Maternal stress during pregnancy is another important factor affecting development and function of the offsprings reproductive system. Corticosteroids are an important class of steroid hormone involved in the stress response and over exposure to these hormones can elicit changes in the developing reproductive system of the foetus. Administration of dexamethasone during pregnancy in rats is associated with various outcomes, such as delayed onset of puberty in both offspring sexes, less follicles in the ovaries of female pups, and lower blood testosterone levels in male pups (Zambrano et al. 2014). Other corticosteroids, such as betamethasone, have shown impaired sperm quality and fertility in male pups (Zambrano et al. 2014). These findings indicate that maternal stress should be kept to a minimum during pregnancy in order to maximise the reproductive potential of her offspring. Although a certain degree of maternal stress is to be expected during pregnancy, chronic exposure to certai n stress hormones can be detrimental to the developing foetus. Having said this, it is unclear what concentrations of these corticosteroids were administered to the pregnant rats, therefore it is difficult to determine what levels of these in the mother could cause developmental restrictions in the foetus. These results arguably are difficult to translate into humans when thinking about impact of human maternal stress on our offspring. Furthermore, human stress is difficult to control, unlike diet or smoking, so it is unfair to attribute blame to the mother for the relative fertility of her offspring when she perhaps cannot control the changes in her uterine environment if shes become stressed during pregnancy. Evidence in the literature supporting this hypothesis is vast and thus not all evidence has been covered. Even though the evidence provided is mostly from animal models, the results can be translated to humans as well, since there are similarities in physiology and metabolism across all mammalian species. The animal models do have their limitations, such as being more or less sensitive to certain stimuli than humans and having different behavioural adaptations, but they also come baring less ethical issues with their exposure to laboratory experiments. That being said, it should also be considered that these animal models have been exposed to extremes of malnutrition and specific nutrient deficiencies, so when interpreting the results to advise pregnant women they should be presented to show that a balance of nutrition is fundamental to maintain a healthy pregnancy and ultimately healthy offspring with normal reproductive function. References CHAVATTE-PALMER, P. et al., 2008. Nutrition maternelle : incidence sur la fertilità © de la descendance et importance de la pà ©riode pà ©riconceptionelle pour le long terme. Gynà ©cologie Obstà ©trique Fertilità ©, 36(9), 920-929 CHEONG, Y. et al., 2014. Diet-induced maternal obesity alters ovarian morphology and gene expression in the adult mouse offspring. Fertility and Sterility, 102(3), 899-907 HANLEY, N.A. et al., 2000. Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) is essential for ovarian development and function. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 163(1-2), 27-32 IKEDA, Y. et al., 2001. Neonatal estrogen exposure inhibits steroidogenesis in the developing rat ovary. Developmental Dynamics, 221(4), 443-453 MOORE, S.E., 2017. Early-Life Nutritional Programming of Health and Disease in The Gambia. Annals of Nutrition Metabolism PAINTER, R.C. et al., 2006. Early onset of coronary artery disease after prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2), 322-327 DE ROOIJ, S.R. et al., 2016. Prenatal Undernutrition and Autonomic Function in Adulthood. Psychosomatic Medicine, 78(9), 991-997 SLOBODA, D.M., M. HICKEY and R. HART, 2011. Reproduction in females: the role of the early life environment. Human Reproduction Update, 17(2), 210-227 WOODRUFF, T.K. and C.L. WALKER, 2008. Fetal and Early Postnatal Environmental Exposures and Reproductive Health Effects in the Female. Fertility and sterility, 89(2 Suppl), e47-e51 ZAMBRANO, E. et al., 2014. Fetal programming of sexual development and reproductive function. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 382(1), 538-549

How Clarice Influenced Montag in Fahrenheit 451 Essay examples -- Ray

Guy Montag is a fireman who is greatly influenced in Ray Bradbury's novel, Fahrenheit 451. The job of a fireman in this futuristic society is to burn down houses with books in them. Montag has always enjoyed his job, that is until Clarisse McClellan comes along. Clarisse is seventeen and crazy. At least, this is what her uncle, whom she gets many of her ideas about the world from, describes her as. Clarisse and Montag befriend each other quickly, and Clarisse's impact on Montag is enormous. Clarisse comes into Montag's life, and immediately begins to question his relationship with his wife, his career, and his happiness. Also, Clarisse shows Montag how to appreciate the simple things in life. She teaches him to care about other people and their feelings. By the end of the novel, we can see that Montag is forever changed by Clarisse. Montag never appreciated the simple things in life. He would never walk or drive slow enough to see the colors of things. This bothered Clarisse McClellan very much. She loved to catch raindrops on her tongue, and she always left little presents for Montag to make sure he appreciated these simple things. Through her spirit and her small simple presents, Montag finds the strength to also appreciate these things.â€Å"And then very slowly as he walked, he tilted his head back in the rain for just a few moments and opened his mouth..†(Bradbury 24). Montag begins to see that no matter how hard life gets, he will always have these smaller things that he can enjoy. In the beginning of the novel, Montag thinks he cares about everyone and their feelings. Once Clarisse steps into his life, this changes right away. She shows him that the world he lives in ignores people's feelings .They make games out of kill... ... chin. She tells Montag that this means she is in love. When she rubs the dandelion underneath Montag's chin she has a very different result. There is no powder. â€Å"'What a shame,' she said. 'You're not in love with anyone' 'I am very much in love!' He tried to conjure up a face to fit the words, but there was no face 'I am!'† Montag goes home, and thinks about this. He later realizes that he isn't in love, and would not care if Mildred died. Montag is influenced by Clarisse a lot. And, her impact on him is tremendous. She questions his whole life, teaches him to appreciate the simple things, and to care about other people and their feelings. â€Å"You're peculiar, you're aggravating, yet you're easy to forgive..†(Bradbury 23) Through all Clarisse's questioning, Montag knows that she is trying to help him. Because of her help and impact on him, Montag is changed forever.

Public Health in 1665 :: Public Health Care Essays

â€Å"Ring around a roses, A pocket full of Poses, A tissue! A tissue! We all fall down!† Even today, children innocently chant this old nursery rhyme, bringing the old saying into reality, â€Å"Ignorance is Bliss†. It’s eerie, to think that this old rhyme in fact gives a perfect description of one of Europe’s worst nightmares, the Great Plague. Many people forget the horrors of the Plague, and when they do remember and think about it, Public heath is rarely a factor that plays a big part when people start to think things through. There were quite a few public health measures in 1665 – the time of the plague. However, how many of these measures worked? An important fact to remember is that in those times, opinions and actions were either based on or blamed on religion and superstition. For example, people started marching across the country, punishing themselves on the basis that the plague was the result of all of man’s sin, whilst trying to persuade people of their cause. Also, charms were used by some cultures, such as the â€Å"Abra Kadabra† charm, which was either carved, or worn as protective jewellery to ward off the evil spirits causing the plague. It looked similar to the image below. A B R A K A D A B R A B R A K A D A B R R A K A D A B A K A D A K A D A One measure they had was that of the â€Å"red cross†. This is where they would paint a red cross on the doors of people who were diagnosed with the plague. I think this would have worked because it would let people know who had the plague, so that they could avoid falling ill themselves. A law was made, saying that once someone was ill with the plague they were to stay in their house. Anyone who happened to live in the same house as the unfortunate soul was also locked in, with fear that they could spread the disease. Beggars were not allowed to wonder the streets at anytime, and were executed immediately for doing so without a given reason. All of these, although sensible ideas (apart from the execution..) would not contribute towards public health, as the disease was not contagious in the human community. It was in fact passed on from fleas living on black rats, but this knowledge had not yet been developed.

Tkam Essay

The Story of a Novel For 50 years, Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird has been recognized worldwide as a classic. It has never been out of print, which is just one of the many signs that prove how imprinted into our society it is. Harper Lee changed the way readers experience the world around them, and certainly raised the bar for what should be expected from classic novels. To Kill a Mockingbird’s legacy will be everlasting, for holds a mirror up to America and shows what truly lies underneath. America has always taken pride in its detailed history, for better or for worse.Many novels have attempted to demonstrate historical events, but none have quite come close to the outstanding perspective of To Kill a Mockingbird. Readers get to see America as it was in the 1930's through the eyes of an untainted, unhindered child. As it has always been told, sadly, racism and prejudice were somewhat of a building block for the founding of this country. The audience experien ces this firsthand in the novel as Atticus Finch, a middle-aged lawyer, takes on a case in which he must defend a black man accused of raping a white woman.Circumstantially, the cause for this case would be lost; the black man would be found guilty upon being seen by the jury. As even Reverend Sykes stated, â€Å"[he] had never seen any jury decide in favor of a colored man over a white man† (279). But Atticus, an entrepreneur of his own kind, defied the accepted truth and caused the jury to ponder for hours. This was an important moment for both literature and for the well-being of America. It puts into perspective the hardships of African Americans during the 1930’s, which is not something to be taken lightly.Every society has their own mind set of what they consider to be ‘ideal. ’ For example, American’s could be loyal, truthful, and courageous; this almost perfectly describes Atticus. Even though obstacles may make his aspirations difficult, he did not stray; he kept pushing forward no matter what. Also, he is the utter definition of what the justice system, a major part of the American lifestyle, is meant to be. It is against his morals to tell anything but the whole truth, to fabricate any circumstance, and to treat any given person as anything but equal.He attempts to change the tarnished views of jury members, which could be seen as a spark for African American rights. Lastly, Atticus is the advocate for courage. As he stated himself, â€Å"[courage] is knowing you're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what† (149). There is a slim possibility of achieving your goal, but it’s that chance that makes all the difference. He has been an inspiration and an American icon for countless amounts of people, which is one of the major reasons that have made To Kill a Mockingbird so widespread.A common factor for many classic novels is their ability to be related to. For inst ance, it would be easier for the reader to relate to a character going through turbulences in their lives than it would be the same person to relate to an old man fighting in an apocalypse. For this reason, it nears impossible to deny how much of a classic To Kill a Mockingbird is. Firstly, Scout is extremely relatable because it’s safe to say most everyone can reminisce to a time when they were innocent, naive to hardship and struggle, and curious about the adult world.One of the universal languages is youth, which is something everyone has had to go through. Second, you will seldom find a person who has not gone through a confusing, complicated period in their life. We experience this with Jem; as he grows and matures, he begins to see the world through different eyes. The only catch is his vision is blurry, which is what confuses the situation. Lastly, practically everyone has gone through a time where the difference between right and wrong is undefined.Atticus has to deci de whether to tarnish one moral or another- to lie and say Arthur Radley didn’t kill Bob Ewell, or to expose him to the world and ultimately kill a mockingbird. For 50 years, To Kill a mockingbird has been looked up to and studied by millions across America, and even across the world. It is one of few novels that can say they have never gone out of print, which is an astonishing accomplishment. Harper Lee touched the hearts of many, and showed readers what it really means to be an American. For these reasons, To Kill a Mockingbird will continue to prosper for endless generations to come.

Discuss Hamlet’s attitude to death and the afterlife Essay

Discuss Hamlet’s attitude to death and the afterlife, giving an indication as to how both contemporary audience and modern audiences might view it. â€Å"Hamlet† deals with situations, which require a single-minded response. However, by the end of the twentieth century a large percentage of people were unfamiliar with church worship and words of the bible, which makes modern interpretation of it much more difficult which Elizabethan and Jacobean audience of Shakespeare’s time on the other hand had strong beliefs in religion, includes specifically the afterlife. Hamlet shares the views of the contemporary audience and we must therefore try to understand his religious perspectives in the way that contemporary audiences would have done. To the modern audience the religious ideas and beliefs of Hamlet may seem strange 1 â€Å"There is never an ideal production of Hamlet; any interpretation must limit. For our decade I think the play will be about the disillusionment which produces apathy of the will so deep that commitment to politics, to religion or to life is impossible†¦ Hamlet is always on the brink of action, but something inside him stops the final committed action. It is an emotion which can encounter in the youth today. † I agree with this statement but I think that it is Hamlet’s conscience that holds him back from killing Claudius rather than mere disillusionment. For the Shakespearean audience, a religious theme would have been established at the very beginning of â€Å"Hamlet† when the ghost fades â€Å"on the crowing of the clock† and Marcellus says: â€Å"Some say that ever ‘gainst that season comes Wherin our Savior’s birth is celebrated, This bird of dawning singeth all night long: And then, they say, no spirit dare stir abroad. The nights are wholesome, then no planets strike, No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm, So hallow’d and so gracious is that time† No spirits are allowed to walk the earth in the day. â€Å"The Crowing of the cock† could also be a religious reference to St Peter’s denial of Christ before the crucifixion, all of which would have been readily understood by a less secular audience than a modern one. When Laertes discovers that Hamlet killed his father, Polonius, his reaction is in complete contrast to Hamlet’s when he discovers what happened to his father. Laertes is prepared to go to Hell to avenge his father’s death and is more concerned about getting his revenge than what happens to him. The final result of Laertes’ decisiveness is the death of Hamlet. Laertes gets his revenge, but at great cost. In a traditional revenge tragedy the search for revenge would predominantly lie with the hero of the play. However, Shakespeare makes Hamlet very aware of the consequences of his actions, which is why this is not the typical revenge tragedy that Jacobean audiences were familiar with. This is because Shakespeare wanted to show that Hamlet has a morality that rises above vengeance. Laertes takes on the role of the character who demands vengeance regardless of the consequences. Hamlet, as I have already suggested, is very much a thinker and considers the consequences of his actions. He procrastinates about taking revenge throughout the play and ironically it is Claudius who suggests the fencing match and the poisoned wine, which ultimately allows Hamlet to honour the Ghosts wishes and kill Claudius. When Hamlet’s father’s ghost first appears to him, he wonders whether or not to accept it at face value. This is because Shakespeare has acknowledged the church belief that no soul could ever return from the grave so all in reality were evil spirits or devils who are attempting to entrap mortals into their power. On first seeing the ghost Hamlet says: â€Å"Angels and ministers of grace defend us! Be thou a spirit of health or goblin damn’d, Bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell, Be thy intents wicked or charitable, Thou com’st in such questionable shape That I will speak to thee. I’ll call thee Hamlet†¦ â€Å"

Does violence on televison lead to violence in real life? Essay

The debate on television violence has been on going for many years now and has produced a wide and varied set of views and research results. Many well established psychologists have attempted, through various types of experiments and observations, to either support or negate a link between violence on television and the violent episodes in â€Å"real† life. These sets of data have thrown up some interesting views and personal conclusions regarding the subject of television violence, and we will show the varying views and conclusions that some of these psychologists have reached; and by using a respected and well known system we will try to show the views of a small section of our community. Previous research into the link between violence and television Over the years numerous psychologists have produced thousands of experiments and or research to support or negate the link between violence and television. In 1987 a psychologist named Cumberbatch produced data on the actual amounts of violence found to be in British television programmes. He concluded that 30% of the programmes contained some form of violence, with an overall frequency of 1.14 violent acts per programme and 1.68 violent acts per hour. Each act of violence lasted an average 25 seconds leading to violence occupying just over 1% of total television airtime. His research showed that in 26% of violent acts death occurred, but in 61% no injuries were shown and the victim was portrayed as being in pain or stunned. In 83% of cases, no blood was shown as a result of a violent act, and considerable blood and gore occurred in only 0.2% of cases. Cumberbatch also revealed that most perpetrators of violent acts were more likely to be portrayed as â€Å"baddies† rather than â€Å"goodies†, and violence occurred twice as frequently in law breaking than in law-upholding contexts. His research, although neither for or against violence on television, gives us an idea of the amount of violence on television we are exposed to. Howitt and Cumberbatch in 1974 analysed 300 studies of television violence and it’s direct effect on children’s behaviour, they played down the link between television violence and the children’s behaviour. A further study into the relationships between the media and violence carried out by Eron 1987and Phillips 1986 found a different conclusion. They concluded that a positive correlation between the amount of aggression viewed at 8 and later aggression at 30 could be seen. George Gerbner (1989) researched television and its influences on human behaviour and said: † Television influences human behaviour because there are â€Å"routes† or mechanisms whereby the content of television can have an effect on what we do, and how we act. Thus, part of televisions influence comes about because of how we learn (by observation and imitation), because of how we respond to certain kinds of story material (arousal/desensitisation), and because of the structure of our inhibitions and the way television provides the kind of stimulation necessary to release them (disinhibition). I called these behavioural mechanisms, because for the most part the influence was shown on some activity† (p128 The Psychology of Television) Aletha Huston (university of Kansas 1989) studied the effects of television violence on children’s behaviour and stated: † Children who watch violent television programmes, even ‘just funny’ cartoons, were more likely to hit out at their playmates, argue, disobey class rules, leave tasks unfinished, and were less willing to wait for things than those who watched the non violent programmes.†(p 142 The Psychology of Television) We can see from the varying studies, different results and opinions of these psychologists just how hard it can be to support or negate a link between violence on television and in real life. How the questionnaires were prepared in class In a classroom environment we produced a questionnaire on peoples opinions relating to the link between television violence and real life. The class split into small groups of three or four and discussed possible questions to add to the questionnaire, trying to have a balance of pro television and anti television questions. The individual group questions were discussed and eight questions picked to make up the actual questionnaire, these questions consisted of four pro television and four anti television, the questions were set out so an anti television was followed by a pro television question. The obvious reason for the split into pro and anti television is to try and produce a questionnaire that will give the people taking part a non-biased set of alternate answers. The questions we decided on where as follows: 1. Violence on TV causes certain people to copy those actions in real life 2. People understand TV is not real life and have no wish to copy what they see 3. Children often act out violence from TV especially cartoons 4. Violence in playgrounds is not influenced by TV 5. Violence is sensationalised in TV soaps to boost ratings 6. Violence in soap story lines is vital to keep viewers interested 7. News programmes use to much graphic violence 8. Graphic violence is needed in the media to show reality in news stories To measure these results we required a scale, this scale is known as the Likert questionnaire scale and was devised in the 1930s, and it works on the principle of asking the question and then giving the subject five possible answers, strongly agree, moderately agree, unsure, moderately disagree and strongly disagree (the first two and last two can be reversed) Questions one, two, five and six were prepared using the answer scale, 1: strongly agree, 2: moderately agree, 3 unsure, 4: moderately disagree and 5: strongly disagree. Questions three, four, seven and eight were prepared using the answer scale, 1: strongly disagree, 2: moderately disagree, 3: unsure, 4: moderately agree and 5: strongly agree. The reason for this is to prevent untrue answers and is explained in the next section. Why are there anomalies in preparation and analysis When preparing the questionnaire we realised that we could possibly encounter problems in the way people would answer the stated questions, the Likert scale is specifically designed to prevent this. For example we could encounter people who would pick only their favourite number and pay no attention to the questions being asked, or people would stick to the left side or right side of each column. The way the scale is set out at the moment both someone who is anti and someone who is pro television would both score the same, 24, and somebody who is unsure of every question asked would score 24 as well. Also a person who sticks to only one side of the scale, say the right side, would score a maximum of 40. This would not form a very interesting conclusion and people’s true views would be unknown so we have to alter the scale to produce interesting results, we alter only the scale and not the actual answers. To alleviate these problems the scale has to go through slight changes when we have all the necessary data, but we must emphasise that only the scores are changed and not any of the actual answers given by the participants After we have made these changes it can be seen that we now have a set of interesting results with definite pro and anti opinions and the people who have not completed the questionnaire correctly have no bearing on the result. How the data was analysed To analyse all the data collected from the questionnaires we needed to produce a graph of all the answers. This table would show in detail how the subjects of the questionnaire answered our eight questions and, when we alter the scale, would provide us with evidence of the pro and anti television feeling. The graph shows all the answers to the questionnaire and also shows the changes made, the numbers in red show how we have altered the value for the actual answer e.g. question 1 answer 1 has now become question 1 answer 5 etc Summary results of questionnaire To find the pro and anti television views of our subjects we needed to work out the over all percentages, these were found by the mathematical processes below: 1. Strongly pro television: value 1 (79) divided by the number of participants (520) multiplied by 100 to give us 15.19% 2. Moderately pro television: value 2, 113/520 x 100 = 21.73% 3. Unsure: value 3, 45/520 x 100 = 8.65% 4. Moderately anti television: value 4, 181/520 x 100 = 34.81% 5. Strongly anti television: value 5, 102/520 x 100 = 19.62% These results show that 54.43% of the people who participated in our questionnaire are moderately or strongly anti television, compared to 36.92% who are moderately or strongly pro television. Other theories for the cause of aggressive behaviour Although the debates still continue on the links between television and aggressive behaviour, other links have been researched and their findings well documented. Probably the most well known person to document his findings on aggressive behaviour was Sigmund Freud (1856-1939); he had a psychoanalytical approach and stated that we all have innate instincts in the form of something called Eros (the seeking of pleasure and self-preservation) and Thanatos (a tendency to self destruct) He tells us that this tension can often lead to the Thanatos being projected outwardly and onto others. Freud stated that the need for displaying aggression comes as naturally as the need for food, drink and sex. The aggressive instinct can be displaced through cathartic activities such as sport. Megargee (1966) supported Freud in his findings and found that crimes are often committed by over controlled individuals who, over a period of time, have repressed their anger. Another approach to this topic was Lorenz’s ethological approach, his hydraulic model claimed that ‘aggressive energy builds up gradually over a period of time and needs to be released periodically.’ Lorenz (1966) stated that aggression is connected with our need to be adaptive, to fit in and survive within our environment. Dollard et al (1939) adopted a very different approach, the frustration-aggression hypothesis. This hypothesis claimed that aggression is always a consequence of frustration and the existence of frustration always leads to aggression. Dollard et al view aggression as innate and in doing so agree with the findings of Freud and Lorenz, but, say it would only take place in particular opportune circumstances. Aggression could possibly be delayed or it could be aimed at a third party, a scapegoat. It is as if the mind thinks things through and only acts when the time is perceived to be right, or is advantageous. Another view is that of Berkowitz (1966) who says we rely on certain cues to trigger our responses. Frustration leads to anger, which is different from actual aggression, the frustration cues a readiness to act. Then only an environmental cue will actually trigger aggression. This theory is somewhat similar to the frustration-aggression hypothesis but it has the intermediary response that takes the form of anger, something has to come along that tips us over the edge. Bandura (1961, 1963, 1965, 1973, 1994) produced a theory on social learning. He claimed that aggressive behaviour was learned through observation, imitation and reinforcement of aggressive models. Even non-tangible reinforcements such as the words † be tough† can have the same effect. Bibliography Course notes R Walters & P J Daly 2003 The psychology of Television John Condry